Freezing Point Of Sodium Chloride

Chemical compound with formula NaCl

This commodity is about the chemical. For its familiar form, common table salt, see Salt. For the medical solutions, see Saline (medicine). For the mineral, see Halite.

Sodium chloride

Sodium chloride crystals in a form of halite
Crystal construction with sodium in purple and chloride in green[1]
Names
IUPAC proper name Sodium chloride
Other names Mutual common salt halite rock salt saline table table salt regular salt sea salt
Identifiers
CAS Number	7647-14-five Y
3D model (JSmol)	Interactive image
Beilstein Reference	3534976
ChEBI	CHEBI:26710 Y
ChEMBL	ChEMBL1200574 N
ChemSpider	5044 Y
ECHA InfoCard	100.028.726
EC Number	231-598-3
Gmelin Reference	13673
KEGG	D02056 Y
MeSH	Sodium+chloride
PubChem CID	5234
RTECS number	VZ4725000
UNII	451W47IQ8X Y
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)	DTXSID3021271
InChI InChI=1S/ClH.Na/h1H;/q;+ane/p-ane Y Key: FAPWRFPIFSIZLT-UHFFFAOYSA-Thou Y InChI=ane/ClH.Na/h1H;/q;+1/p-one Key: FAPWRFPIFSIZLT-REWHXWOFAE
SMILES [Na+].[Cl-]
Properties
Chemical formula	NaCl
Molar mass	58.443 g/mol[2]
Appearance	Colorless cubic crystals[ii]
Odor	Odorless
Density	two.17 g/cm3 [two]
Melting point	800.7 °C (1,473.iii °F; 1,073.8 K)[2]
Boiling point	1,465 °C (2,669 °F; i,738 Chiliad)[2]
Solubility in water	360 one thousand/thou g pure water at T = 25 °C[2]
Solubility in ammonia	21.5 g/L at T = ?[ clarification needed ]
Solubility in methanol	14.9 g/L at T = ?[ clarification needed ]
Magnetic susceptibility (χ)	−30.2·10−half-dozen cmthree/mol[3]
Refractive index (n D)	1.5441 (at 589 nm)[4]
Structure[5]
Crystal construction	Face-centered cubic (see text), cF8
Space group	Fm3m (No. 225)
Lattice constant	a = 564.02 pm
Formula units (Z)	four
Coordination geometry	octahedral at Na+ octahedral at Cl−
Thermochemistry[vi]
Estrus capacity (C)	50.5 J/(K·mol)
Std molar entropy (S ⦵ 298)	72.10 J/(K·mol)
Std enthalpy of formation (Δf H ⦵ 298)	−411.120 kJ/mol
Pharmacology
ATC lawmaking	A12CA01 (WHO) B05CB01 (WHO), B05XA03 (WHO), S01XA03 (WHO)
Hazards
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)	0 0 0
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
LD50 (median dose)	3 g/kg (oral, rats)[7]
Related compounds
Other anions	Sodium fluoride Sodium bromide Sodium iodide Sodium astatide
Other cations	Lithium chloride Potassium chloride Rubidium chloride Caesium chloride Francium chloride
Supplementary data page
Sodium chloride (data page)
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa). Nverify (what is Y N  ?) Infobox references

Chemical compound

Sodium chloride ,^[8] commonly known as salt (although sea salt likewise contains other chemical salts), is an ionic chemical compound with the chemical formula NaCl, representing a ane:1 ratio of sodium and chloride ions. With molar masses of 22.99 and 35.45 g/mol respectively, 100 g of NaCl contains 39.34 k Na and 60.66 g Cl. Sodium chloride is the salt most responsible for the salinity of seawater and of the extracellular fluid of many multicellular organisms. In its edible grade of table table salt, information technology is commonly used as a additive and food preservative. Large quantities of sodium chloride are used in many industrial processes, and it is a major source of sodium and chlorine compounds used every bit feedstocks for further chemic syntheses. Another major application of sodium chloride is de-icing of roadways in sub-freezing weather.

Uses [edit]

In addition to the familiar domestic uses of table salt, more dominant applications of the approximately 250 million tonnes per twelvemonth production (2008 data) include chemicals and de-icing.^[9]

Chemical functions [edit]

Salt is used, directly or indirectly, in the production of many chemicals, which consume most of the globe's product.^[10]

Chlor-alkali industry [edit]

It is the starting point for the chloralkali process, the industrial procedure to produce chlorine and sodium hydroxide, according to the chemic equation

${\displaystyle {\ce {2 NaCl + 2 Water ->[electrolysis] Cl2 + H2 + 2 NaOH}}}$

This electrolysis is conducted in either a mercury jail cell, a diaphragm cell, or a membrane cell. Each of those uses a different method to separate the chlorine from the sodium hydroxide. Other technologies are under development due to the high free energy consumption of the electrolysis, whereby small improvements in the efficiency tin can accept large economical paybacks. Some applications of chlorine include PVC thermoplastics product, disinfectants, and solvents.

Sodium hydroxide is extensively used in many dissimilar industries enabling production of paper, lather, and aluminium etc.

Soda-ash industry [edit]

Sodium chloride is used in the Solvay process to produce sodium carbonate and calcium chloride. Sodium carbonate, in turn, is used to produce drinking glass, sodium bicarbonate, and dyes, too as a myriad of other chemicals. In the Mannheim process, sodium chloride is used for the production of sodium sulfate and muriatic acid.

Standard [edit]

Sodium chloride has an international standard that is created by ASTM International. The standard is named ASTM E534-thirteen and is the standard examination methods for chemical analysis of sodium chloride. These methods listed provide procedures for analyzing sodium chloride to determine whether information technology is suitable for its intended use and application.

Miscellaneous industrial uses [edit]

Sodium chloride is heavily used, so even relatively minor applications tin can swallow massive quantities. In oil and gas exploration, salt is an important component of drilling fluids in well drilling. It is used to flocculate and increase the density of the drilling fluid to overcome high downwell gas pressures. Whenever a drill hits a common salt formation, common salt is added to the drilling fluid to saturate the solution in gild to minimize the dissolution inside the table salt stratum.^[ix] Salt is likewise used to increase the curing of physical in cemented casings.^[ten]

In textiles and dyeing, common salt is used as a brine rinse to divide organic contaminants, to promote "salting out" of dyestuff precipitates, and to alloy with concentrated dyes to standardize^{[ clarification needed ]} them. One of its primary roles is to provide the positive ion charge to promote the absorption of negatively charged ions of dyes.^[ten]

It is as well used in processing aluminium, glucinium, copper, steel and vanadium. In the pulp and paper manufacture, salt is used to bleach wood lurid. It too is used to make sodium chlorate, which is added along with sulfuric acid and water to manufacture chlorine dioxide, an excellent oxygen-based bleaching chemic. The chlorine dioxide process, which originated in Frg after World War I, is condign more pop considering of environmental pressures to reduce or eliminate chlorinated bleaching compounds. In tanning and leather treatment, salt is added to animal hides to inhibit microbial activity on the underside of the hides and to attract wet dorsum into the hides.^[x]

In rubber industry, salt is used to make buna, neoprene and white rubber types. Table salt brine and sulfuric acid are used to coagulate an emulsified latex made from chlorinated butadiene.^{[10] [nine]}

Salt besides is added to secure the soil and to provide firmness to the foundation on which highways are congenital. The table salt acts to minimize the effects of shifting acquired in the subsurface by changes in humidity and traffic load.^[x]

Sodium chloride is sometimes used as a cheap and safe desiccant because of its hygroscopic backdrop, making salting an effective method of food preservation historically; the salt draws h2o out of bacteria through osmotic pressure, keeping information technology from reproducing, a major source of food spoilage. Even though more effective desiccants are available, few are safe for humans to ingest.

Water softening [edit]

Difficult water contains calcium and magnesium ions that interfere with action of lather and contribute to the buildup of a scale or motion picture of alkaline mineral deposits in household and industrial equipment and pipes. Commercial and residential water-softening units use ion-exchange resins to remove ions that crusade the hardness. These resins are generated and regenerated using sodium chloride.^{[x] [9]}

Road salt [edit]

Phase diagram of h2o–NaCl mixture

The second major application of salt is for de-icing and anti-icing of roads, both in grit bins and spread by winter service vehicles. In anticipation of snowfall, roads are optimally "anti-iced" with brine (concentrated solution of salt in water), which prevents bonding between the snowfall-ice and the road surface. This procedure obviates the heavy use of salt after the snowfall. For de-icing, mixtures of brine and table salt are used, sometimes with additional agents such as calcium chloride and/or magnesium chloride. The utilize of salt or brine becomes ineffective below −x °C (fourteen °F).

Mounds of road salt for use in winter

Salt for de-icing in the United kingdom predominantly comes from a single mine in Winsford in Cheshire. Prior to distribution it is mixed with <100 ppm of sodium ferrocyanide as an anti-caking agent, which enables rock salt to flow freely out of the gritting vehicles despite being stockpiled prior to use. In contempo years this additive has too been used in table salt. Other additives had been used in road salt to reduce the total costs. For instance, in the US, a byproduct carbohydrate solution from sugar-beet processing was mixed with stone salt and adhered to road surfaces about 40% better than loose rock common salt alone. Considering it stayed on the road longer, the treatment did not have to be repeated several times, saving time and coin.^[ten]

In the technical terms of physical chemistry, the minimum freezing betoken of a water-salt mixture is −21.12 °C (−vi.02 °F) for 23.31 wt% of common salt. Freezing near this concentration is nevertheless and then slow that the eutectic bespeak of −22.4 °C (−8.3 °F) tin be reached with about 25 wt% of salt.^[11]

Environmental effects [edit]

Road salt ends upwards in fresh-water bodies and could impairment aquatic plants and animals by disrupting their osmoregulation ability.^[12] The attendance of salt poses a trouble in any coastal blanket application, every bit trapped salts crusade bang-up problems in adhesion. Naval authorities and ship builders monitor the salt concentrations on surfaces during construction. Maximal salt concentrations on surfaces are dependent on the authority and application. The IMO regulation is mostly used and sets salt levels to a maximum of l mg/m² soluble salts measured as sodium chloride. These measurements are done by means of a Bresle examination. Salinization (increasing salinity, aka freshwater salinization syndrome) and subsequent increased metal leaching is an ongoing trouble throughout North America and European fresh waterways.^[13]

In highway de-icing, common salt has been associated with corrosion of span decks, motor vehicles, reinforcement bar and wire, and unprotected steel structures used in road construction. Surface runoff, vehicle spraying, and windblown deportment also impact soil, roadside vegetation, and local surface water and groundwater supplies. Although prove of environmental loading of salt has been found during acme usage, the leap rains and thaws usually dilute the concentrations of sodium in the area where salt was applied.^[10] A 2009 study plant that approximately lxx% of the road table salt being applied in the Minneapolis-St Paul metro surface area is retained in the local watershed.^[fourteen]

Substitution [edit]

Some agencies are substituting beer, molasses, and beet juice instead of route salt.^[15] Airlines utilize more glycol and sugar rather than salt based solutions for de-icing.^[16]

Food manufacture and agriculture [edit]

Primary article: Salt

Many microorganisms cannot alive in a salty environment: water is drawn out of their cells by osmosis. For this reason salt is used to preserve some foods, such every bit bacon, fish, or cabbage.

Table salt is added to food, either by the food producer or by the consumer, as a season enhancer, preservative, binder, fermentation-command condiment, texture-control amanuensis and color developer. The salt consumption in the food industry is subdivided, in descending guild of consumption, into other food processing, meat packers, canning, baking, dairy and grain mill products. Table salt is added to promote color development in salary, ham and other processed meat products. As a preservative, salt inhibits the growth of bacteria. Table salt acts as a binder in sausages to class a binding gel made up of meat, fat, and moisture. Table salt also acts equally a season enhancer and as a tenderizer.^[ten]

In many dairy industries, salt is added to cheese as a color-, fermentation-, and texture-control agent. The dairy subsector includes companies that manufacture creamery butter, condensed and evaporated milk, frozen desserts, ice cream, natural and processed cheese, and specialty dairy products. In canning, common salt is primarily added as a flavor enhancer and preservative. It also is used every bit a carrier for other ingredients, dehydrating amanuensis, enzyme inhibitor and tenderizer. In baking, table salt is added to control the rate of fermentation in bread dough. It also is used to strengthen the gluten (the elastic protein-water complex in certain doughs) and as a flavor enhancer, such as a topping on baked goods. The food-processing category also contains grain mill products. These products consist of milling flour and rice and manufacturing cereal breakfast food and blended or prepared flour. Table salt is too used a seasoning agent, e.g. in tater chips, pretzels, cat and dog food.^[10]

Sodium chloride is used in veterinarian medicine equally emesis-causing amanuensis. Information technology is given as warm saturated solution. Emesis can besides be caused by pharyngeal placement of small-scale amount of plain salt or salt crystals.

Medicine [edit]

Sodium chloride is used together with water equally i of the main solutions for intravenous therapy. Nasal spray often contains a saline solution.

Firefighting [edit]

A class-D fire extinguisher for various metals

Sodium chloride is the primary extinguishing agent in fire extinguishers (Met-L-10, Super D) used on combustible metal fires such equally magnesium, potassium, sodium, and NaK alloys (Class D). Thermoplastic powder is added to the mixture, along with waterproofing (metallic stearates) and anti-caking materials (tricalcium phosphate) to form the extinguishing amanuensis. When information technology is applied to the burn down, the salt acts like a heat sink, dissipating estrus from the fire, and besides forms an oxygen-excluding crust to smother the fire. The plastic condiment melts and helps the crust maintain its integrity until the burning metal cools below its ignition temperature. This type of extinguisher was invented in the late 1940s equally a cartridge-operated unit, although stored pressure versions are now popular. Mutual sizes are 30 pounds (fourteen kg) portable and 350 pounds (160 kg) wheeled.^{[ citation needed ]}

Cleanser [edit]

Since at least medieval times, people take used salt every bit a cleansing agent rubbed on household surfaces. It is as well used in many brands of shampoo, toothpaste and popularly to de-ice driveways and patches of ice.

Optical usage [edit]

Defect-free NaCl crystals take an optical transmittance of almost 90% for infrared lite, specifically betwixt 200 nm and twenty µm. They were therefore used in optical components (windows and prisms) operating in that spectral range, where few not-absorbing alternatives exist and where requirements for absenteeism of microscopic inhomogeneities are less strict than in the visible range. While inexpensive, NaCl crystals are soft and hygroscopic – when exposed to the ambient air, they gradually cover with "frost". This limits application of NaCl to dry environments, vacuum sealed assembly areas or for brusque-term uses such every bit prototyping. Nowadays materials like zinc selenide (ZnSe), which are stronger mechanically and are less sensitive to moisture, are used instead of NaCl for the infrared spectral range.

Chemical science [edit]

Solid sodium chloride [edit]

Sodium chloride crystal under microscope.

NaCl octahedra. The yellowish stipples represent the electrostatic force between the ions of opposite charge

In solid sodium chloride, each ion is surrounded by six ions of the opposite charge as expected on electrostatic grounds. The surrounding ions are located at the vertices of a regular octahedron. In the linguistic communication of close-packing, the larger chloride ions (167 pm in size^[17]) are arranged in a cubic array whereas the smaller sodium ions (116 pm^[17]) fill all the cubic gaps (octahedral voids) between them. This same basic construction is institute in many other compounds and is ordinarily known as the halite or stone-salt crystal structure. It tin be represented equally a face-centered cubic (fcc) lattice with a 2-atom basis or as two interpenetrating face up centered cubic lattices. The first cantlet is located at each lattice point, and the second atom is located halfway between lattice points forth the fcc unit of measurement cell edge.

Solid sodium chloride has a melting indicate of 801 °C. Thermal conductivity of sodium chloride as a function of temperature has a maximum of 2.03 W/(cm G) at 8 One thousand (−265.15 °C; −445.27 °F) and decreases to 0.069 at 314 K (41 °C; 106 °F). Information technology besides decreases with doping.^[18]

Atomic-resolution real-time video imaging allows visualization of the initial stage of crystal nucleation of sodium chloride.^[19]

Aqueous solutions [edit]

Solubility of NaCl (g NaCl / i kg of solvent at 25 °C (77 °F))[20]
Water	360
Formamide	94
Glycerin	83
Propylene glycol	71
Formic acid	52
Liquid ammonia	30.2
Methanol	fourteen
Ethanol	0.65
Dimethylformamide	0.4
i-Propanol	0.124
Sulfolane	0.05
1-Butanol	0.05
2-Propanol	0.03
1-Pentanol	0.018
Acetonitrile	0.003
Acetone	0.00042

The allure between the Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions in the solid is so strong that only highly polar solvents like h2o dissolve NaCl well.

View of 1 slab of NaCl(H₂O)₂ (cherry = O, white = H, light-green = Cl, royal = Na).^[21]

When dissolved in h2o, the sodium chloride framework disintegrates equally the Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions get surrounded by polar water molecules. These solutions consist of metal aquo complex with the formula [Na(H₂O)₈]⁺, with the Na–O distance of 250 pm. The chloride ions are also strongly solvated, each being surrounded by an boilerplate of 6 molecules of water.^[22] Solutions of sodium chloride have very different properties from pure water. The eutectic point is −21.12 °C (−6.02 °F) for 23.31% mass fraction of salt, and the boiling signal of saturated common salt solution is well-nigh 108.seven °C (227.7 °F).^[11] From cold solutions, salt crystallises as the dihydrate NaCl·2H_iiO.^[23]

pH of sodium chloride solutions [edit]

The pH of a sodium chloride solution remains ≈7 due to the extremely weak basicity of the Cl⁻ ion, which is the cohabit base of the strong acrid HCl. In other words, NaCl has no effect on organization pH^[24] in diluted solutions where the effects of ionic strength and action coefficients are negligible.

Unexpected stable stoichiometric variants [edit]

Common salt has a 1:1 molar ratio of sodium and chlorine. In 2013, compounds of sodium and chloride of dissimilar stoichiometries have been discovered; 5 new compounds were predicted (e.g., Na₃Cl, Na₂Cl, Na₃Cl₂, NaCl₃, and NaCl₇). The beingness of some of them has been experimentally confirmed at loftier pressures: cubic and orthorhombic NaCl₃ and two-dimensional metallic tetragonal Na₃Cl. This indicates that compounds violating chemical intuition are possible, in simple systems under nonambient conditions.^[25]

Occurrence [edit]

Almost of the world's salt is dissolved in the ocean^{[ citation needed ]}. A lesser amount is plant in the Earth'south crust equally the water-soluble mineral halite (rock common salt), and a tiny amount exists as suspended sea common salt particles in the atmosphere^{[ citation needed ]}. These particles are the dominant cloud condensation nuclei far out at sea, which allow the formation of clouds in otherwise not-polluted air.^[26]

Production [edit]

Salt is currently mass-produced past evaporation of seawater or brine from alkali wells and common salt lakes. Mining of stone table salt is also a major source. Prc is the world's master supplier of salt.^[ten] In 2017, world production was estimated at 280 1000000 tonnes, the acme five producers (in 1000000 tonnes) being China (68.0), The states (43.0), India (26.0), Germany (13.0), and Canada (13.0).^[27] Salt is also a byproduct of potassium mining.

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• 

Encounter also [edit]

• Biosalinity
• Edible salt (table salt)
• Halite, the mineral class of sodium chloride
• Health effects of salt
• Salinity
• Salting the earth
• Salt poisoning

References [edit]

1. ^ "Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Crystal". PhysicsOpenLab. Retrieved 23 August 2021.
2. ^ ^{a b c d east f} Haynes, iv.89
3. ^ Haynes, 4.135
4. ^ Haynes, x.241
5. ^ Haynes, 4.148
6. ^ Haynes, 5.8
7. ^ Sodium chloride. nlm.nih.gov.
8. ^ Wells, John C. (2008), Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.), Longman, pp. 143 and 755, ISBN9781405881180
9. ^ ^{a b c d} Westphal, Gisbert et al. (2002) "Sodium Chloride" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim doi:10.1002/14356007.a24_317.pub4.
10. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j yard 50} Kostick, Dennis S. (October 2010) "Salt" in U.S. Geological Survey, 2008 Minerals Yearbook
11. ^ ^{a b} Elvers, B. et al. (ed.) (1991) Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 5th ed. Vol. A24, Wiley, p. 319, ISBN 978-three-527-20124-2.
12. ^ Rastogi, Nina (16 Feb 2010) Does road salt impairment the surroundings? slate.com.
13. ^ "Saltier waterways are creating dangerous 'chemical cocktails'". phys.org.
14. ^ "Most Road Salt Is Making Information technology into Lakes And Rivers". world wide web.sciencedaily.com. University of Minnesota. 20 Feb 2009. Retrieved 27 September 2015.
15. ^ Casey, Michael. "Turning to beet juice and beer to accost route table salt danger". phys.org.
16. ^ "EASA Cautions on Organic Salt Deicing Fluid". MRO Network. 9 December 2016.
17. ^ ^{a b} R. D. Shannon (1976). "Revised effective ionic radii and systematic studies of interatomic distances in halides and chalcogenides". Acta Crystallogr A. 32 (5): 751–767. Bibcode:1976AcCrA..32..751S. doi:10.1107/S0567739476001551.
18. ^ Sirdeshmukh, Dinker B.; Sirdeshmukh, Lalitha & Subhadra, K. M. (2001). Alkali halides: a handbook of physical backdrop. Springer. pp. 65, 68. ISBN978-iii-540-42180-one.
19. ^ Nakamuro, Takayuki; Sakakibara, Masaya; Nada, Hiroki; Harano, Koji; Nakamura, Eiichi (2021). "Capturing the Moment of Emergence of Crystal Nucleus from Disorder". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 143 (iv): 1763–1767. doi:10.1021/jacs.0c12100. PMID 33475359.
20. ^ Burgess, J (1978). Metal Ions in Solution. New York: Ellis Horwood. ISBN978-0-85312-027-eight.
21. ^ Klewe, B; Pedersen (1974). "The crystal construction of sodium chloride dihydrate". Acta Crystallogr. B30 (10): 2363–2371. doi:10.1107/S0567740874007138.
22. ^ Lincoln, S. F.; Richens, D. T. and Sykes, A. G. (2003) "Metal Aqua Ions" Comprehensive Coordination Chemistry Two Book 1, pp. 515–555. doi:10.1016/B0-08-043748-vi/01055-0.
23. ^ Water-NaCl stage diagram. Lide, CRC Handbook of Chemical science and Physics, 86 ed (2005-2006), CRC pages eight-71, 8-116.
24. ^ "Acidic, Basic, and Neutral Salts". Flinn Scientific Chem Fax. 2016. Retrieved 18 September 2018. Neutralization of a strong acid and a strong base of operations gives a neutral salt.
25. ^ Zhang, W.; Oganov, A. R.; Goncharov, A. F.; Zhu, Q.; Boulfelfel, Southward. E.; Lyakhov, A. O.; Stavrou, Eastward.; Somayazulu, M.; Prakapenka, Five. B.; Konôpková, Z. (2013). "Unexpected Stable Stoichiometries of Sodium Chlorides". Science. 342 (6165): 1502–1505. arXiv:1310.7674. Bibcode:2013Sci...342.1502Z. doi:10.1126/science.1244989. PMID 24357316. S2CID 15298372.
26. ^ Bricklayer, B. J. (2006). "The role of sea-salt particles as cloud condensation nuclei over the remote oceans". Quarterly Periodical of the Royal Meteorological Society. 127 (576): 2023–32. Bibcode:2001QJRMS.127.2023M. doi:10.1002/qj.49712757609. S2CID 121846285.
27. ^ Salt, U.South. Geological Survey

•  This article incorporates public domain material from Salt (PDF). United States Geological Survey.

Cited sources [edit]

• Haynes, William M., ed. (2011). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (92nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN978-1439855119.

External links [edit]

Wikimedia Eatables has media related to NaCl.

• Salt U.s. Geological Survey Statistics and Information
• "Using Salt and Sand for Winter Road Maintenance". Road Management Journal. December 1997. Archived from the original on 21 September 2016. Retrieved xiii February 2007.
• Calculators: surface tensions, and densities, molarities and molalities of aqueous NaCl (and other salts)
• JtBaker MSDS

Freezing Point Of Sodium Chloride,

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloride

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