Another Name For Neolithic Age

History of Bretagne, France

Coordinates: 48°00′N 3°00′West / 48.000°N 3.000°Westward / 48.000; -3.000

Historical province in France

Brittany Bretagne (French) Breizh (Breton) Bertaèyn (Gallo)
Historical province

Flag Coat of arms
Motto(due south): None (de jure) Historical: Kentoc'h mervel eget bezañ saotret Rather death than dishonour (de facto)
Canticle: None (de jure) "Bro Gozh ma Zadoù" Old State of Our Fathers (de facto)

Country	French republic
Largest settlements	List Nantes Rennes Brest Saint-Nazaire Quimper Lorient Vannes Saint-Malo Saint-Brieuc Douarnenez
Area
• Total	34,023 km² (13,136 sq mi)
Population (2021)
• Total	4,829,968
Demonym	Bretons
Time zone	UTC+1 (CET)
• Summertime (DST)	UTC+ii (CEST)
ISO 3166 code	FR-Due east
Website	bretagne.com

The history of Brittany may refer to the entire history of the Armorican peninsula or just to the creation and development of a specifically Brythonic civilization and country in the Early Center Ages and the subsequent history of that state.

Pre-Brythonic Armorica includes the ancient megalith cultures in the surface area and the Celtic tribal territories that existed before Roman rule. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, large scale migration from the British Isles led to the foundation of British colonies linked initially to homelands in Cornwall, Devon, and Wales. The various independent little Breton states later adult into a Kingdom and and so a Duchy of Brittany, before it was unified with French republic to become a province. After the French Revolution Brittany was abolished as an administrative unit of measurement, simply continued to retain its distinctive cultural identity. Its administrative beingness was reconstituted, in reduced size, every bit the Region of Brittany in the mid-20th century.

The history of Brittany begins with settlement offset in prehistoric times, first around 700 000 BCE. The neolithic era, which began around 5000 BCE, is characterised in the region by the evolution of an important megalithic fine art found in sites such equally the cenotaph of Barnenez, the cairn of Gavrinis, the table of the Merchants of Locmariaquer or the alignments of Carnac. In the grade of its protohistory which began around the middle of the 3rd century BCE, a subsoil rich in tin allowed the development of an industry in bronze objects, which led to commercial routes for export to other regions of Europe. Information technology was inhabited by Gallic peoples including the Veneti and the Namnetes in the first centuries BCE before these territories were conquered by Julius Caesar in 57 BCE, and progressively Romanized.

As function of Armorica since the Gallo-Roman menses, Brittany developed an important maritime trade network near the ports of Nantes, Vannes, and Alet, every bit well as salting factories along its coasts. When Rome encountered crises in the tertiary and fifth centuries, the offset wave of island Bretons were asked by the imperial ability to help secure their territory, beginning with a migratory move that was carried out until the sixth century, and saw the ancestry of many kingdoms in the peninsula.

In lodge to prevent Breton incursion, the neighbouring Frankish kingdom created a Breton frontier incorporating the counties of Rennes and Nantes. From the 6th to ninth centuries even so, the Merovingian dynasty and the Carolingian dynasty tried to integrate the region into the Frankish kingdom, with express and ephemeral success.

The matrimony of the country as Brittany occurred in 851 under King Erispoë, son of Nominoë, but was disrupted by disputes over succession and Norsemen incursions. Since 939, Brittany was re-established every bit a Sovereign Duchy with somewhat definite borders, administered by Dukes of Breton houses from 939 to 1166, before falling into the sphere of influence of the Plantagenets and so the Capets. The State of war of the Breton Succession lasted from 1341 to 1364 against the backdrop of the Hundred Years' War. An autonomous power emerged in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, maintaining a policy of independence from France. The union of Brittany to France occurred in 1532.

The Breton province then maintained relative autonomy and benefited from its own institutions. Subsequently a period of strong economic and demographic growth in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, due to a menses of newfound peace, Brittany experienced a troubled flow from the cease of the seventeenth century to the French Revolution of 1789. Brittany was dissolved in 1789 and divided among the departments of Côtes-du-Nord, Finistère, Ille-et-Vilaine, Loire-Inférieure and Morbihan.

Later a long nineteenth century marked by a modernization of agriculture and by huge increases in population, an emigration to the remainder of France began. Although a traditionally conservative region, Brittany saw the rise of workers' movements in cities such every bit Brest, Lorient and Saint-Nazaire.

The First World War was an of import turning bespeak for Bretons, who discovered new ways of life, which some would seek to integrate fiddling by little. The question of the proper place for the Breton language and regional traditions became the central element of a political movement which began to emerge in the same era. A long process of modernization took identify from the 1920s through the 1970s, in concert with a motion of cultural reaffirmation.

Prehistory of Brittany [edit]

Stone Age [edit]

Paleolithic [edit]

The Paleolithic menstruum of Brittany ranges from 700 000 to 10 000 years BC. Traces of the oldest industries were found in the middle valley of the Vilaine river, identified as pebbles arranged in a quarry in Saint-Malo-de-Phily.^[1] The oldest traces of habitat are located in Saint-Colomban, in Carnac, and take the grade of settlements congenital in natural shelters (cliffs created past the erosion along the coasts). In addition to pebbles, bifaces are institute there, and the site dates to 300,000 BC. J.-C. Acheulian bifacials from this period are institute forth the sea coast, equally Treguennec, Hôpital-Camfrout or Pléneuf.^[2] The oldest traces of fire apply (in the region but also of occidental Europe) are found on the site of Menez Dregan with a date making them up to 400 000 years BC.^[three] The few human groups are and so made of hunter-gatherers.^[4]

From the Middle-Mousterian period, remain 2 outstanding sites in the region, in Mont-Dol where scrapers were found in a site dated to lxx,000 BC. , as well as at Goaréva on the island of Bréhat.^[ii]

The Upper Paleolithic is characterized past a refined tools similar blades and lamellae plant on the site of Beg-ar-C'Hastel in Kerlouan, or at Plasenn-al-Lomm on the island of Bréhat. No painted cavern is identified in the surface area, probably because of rising sea levels during the next period. Simply the nearest cave of this type is known in Saulges. The end of the Palaeolithic menstruation in the region is around 10,000 BC. J.-C.^[five]

Mesolithic [edit]

The Mesolithic period covers in the region a period from x,000 BC. to 5000 BC. , corresponding to the end of the terminal Ice Age and the resulting rise in water level. Steppe vegetation is replaced by a vegetation of birch and pino, and hazel, oak and elms; large mammals give mode to animals of smaller size as deer or wild boar. For a fourth dimension, hunting and gathering continue, equally well as fishing and foraging. By the time of the Neolithic, withal, animal domestication and cereal production supervene upon hunting.^[5] The population is mainly coastal and larger on the due south coast. The skeletons institute from this menstruum attest to an average size of 1.59 meters for men and i.52 thousand for women.^[half-dozen]

Human engineering continue to progress with a reduction in size of stone tools to grade microliths.^[five] Human societies are more structured, with a degree of specialization of activities in a given community (as indicated past studies of the Téviec burying site)^[vi] and the beginning of an creative expression.^[vii] Traces of deaths caused by tools like arrows are as well visible on some skeletons, attesting to sometimes tearing conflicts between different communities.^[8]

Neolithic [edit]

The Neolithic menstruation (stretching from 5000 BC to 2000 BC.) saw the arrival of an agronomics based on slash-and-burn down: state is reclaimed from the forest later having fired and is so used for breeding before sprinkling grass.^[9] This development was made possible by the development of methods of extracting stones and their shaping. In a quarry in Plussulien, almost 5000 dolerite axes were extracted per year, representing xl% of the axes of the Breton peninsula. The dissemination of these tools stretched to Paris basin, and 10 copies of these axes were found to Belgium and southern England. The region too imported yellow blond flint blades from Touraine.^[ten]

This flow is too notable for the development of megalithic monuments, helped by a significant economical growth. Two of the most ancient sites, the mound of Barnenez and the Petit-Mont, whose buildings appointment back to 5000 BC., evidenced past their similarities to a unity of culture in the peninsula.^[8] This type of construction will somewhen evolve and provide more regional variants.^[11] In these burial sites were establish engravings similar to those observed in Irish sites like Newgrange.^[12]

Besides these barrows are likewise nowadays menhirs, the highest known being in the Leon region where the largest, that of Kerloas, rises to 9.50 m. The largest ever erected is located in Southward Brittany in Locmariaquer: the Locmariaquer megaliths amounting to 18.5 m. Engravings can also exist found there and their functions are multiple: Indicator of burials, astronomical and topographic features, or reflecting a water worship. The last menhirs were raised around 1800-1500 BC. They can be combined in single or multiple rows, or in semicircles or circles.^[13]

Protohistory [edit]

Iron Age [edit]

A diversity of tribes are mentioned in Roman sources, similar the Veneti, Armoricani, Osismii, Namnetes and Coriosolites. Strabo and Poseidonius describe the Armoricani as belonging to the Belgae.

Armorican gold coins have been widely exported and are even found in the Rhineland.

Salterns are widespread in Northern Armorica, for example at Trégor, Ebihens and Enez Vihan well-nigh Pleumeur-Bodou (Côtes-d'Armor) and the isle of Yoc'h near Landuvez (Finistère) of belatedly La Tène date.

An estimated xl–55 kg of salt per oven were produced at Ebihens. Each oven was about 2 m long. The site dates to the terminate of the early on La Tène or the center La Tène period. Numerous briquetage remains have been establish. At Tregor, boudins de Calage (hand-bricks) were the typical grade of briquetage, between 2.v and xv cm long and with a diameter of 4–7 cm. At the salterns at Landrellec and Enez Vihan at Pleumeur-Bodou the remains of rectangular ovens have been excavated that are two.five–3 thousand long and near 1 yard wide, constructed of stones and dirt. On the Gulf of Morbihan about l salterns have been found and then far, mainly dating to the final La Téne catamenia.

Roman rule [edit]

In 56 BC the area was conquered by the Romans under Julius Caesar. The master resistance came from the Veneti. After their defeat their leaders were killed and the tribe sold every bit slaves. The Romans called the district Armorica (a Latinisation of a Celtic word meaning "coastal region"), part of the Gallia Lugdunensis province. The modern département of Côtes-d'Armor has taken upward the ancient name. Later the reforms of Diocletian, information technology was part of the diocesis Galliarum.

The uprising of the Bagaudae in the third century led to unrest and depopulation, numerous villages were destroyed. Thick layers of black globe in the towns indicate to urban depopulation equally well. The dominion of Constantine (307–350) led to a sure renaissance. Numerous coins were minted. At the tractus Armoricanus, new forts were built, for example at Brest, Avranches and Le Yaudet. The Notitia Dignitatum (circa 400 AD) mentions a number of local units manning the Tractus armoricanus et nervicanus, for case Mauritanian troops in the territory of the Veneti and Osismii. Frankish laeti were present in Rennes. Christianisation is commonly dated to the late fourth century, merely material evidence is rare.

Centre Ages [edit]

Early Middle Ages [edit]

Arrival of the Bretons [edit]

Map of British settlements in the 6th century.

In the 380s, a large number of Britons in the Roman army may have been stationed in Armorica. The ninth century Historia Brittonum states that the emperor Magnus Maximus, who withdrew Roman forces from Britania, settled the troops in that location. Other British and Welsh authors (Nennius and Gildas) mention a 2nd moving ridge of South-Western Britons from Dumnonia, settling in Armorica in the following century to escape the invading Anglo-Saxons and Irish. Modern archaeology supports a two-wave migration.^[xiv]

These Britons gave the region its electric current name and contributed the Breton language, Brezhoneg, a sis language to Welsh and Cornish. (Brittany used to exist known in English language as Piddling United kingdom to distinguish it from U.k..)

Conan Meriadoc, the mythic founder of the house of Rohan, is mentioned by medieval Welsh sources equally having led the settlement of Brittany by mercenaries serving Maximus. The Welsh text The Dream of Maxen, which contains semi-factual information nigh the usurpation of Maximus, states that they married native women later on cutting out their tongues to preserve the purity of their language.^[fifteen] This can be interpreted every bit a legend formulated in order to explain the Welsh (Brythonic) name for Brittany, Llydaw, equally originating from lled-taw or "one-half-silent". In fact, the term "Llydaw" or "Ledav" in early Breton probably derives from the Celtic proper noun Litavis.

In that location are numerous records of missionaries migrating from Britania during the 2d wave, especially the seven founder-saints of Brittany and Saint Gildas. Many Breton towns are named for these early saints. The Irish saint Colombanus also evangelised Brittany, commemorated at Saint-Columban in Carnac.

The earliest text known in the Breton language, a botanical treatise, dates from 590 (for comparing, the earliest text in French dates from 843).^[16] Virtually of the early Breton language medieval manuscripts were lost during the Viking invasions.

The little kingdoms [edit]

In the Early Eye Ages, Brittany was divided into 3 kingdoms – Domnonia (Devnent), Cornouaille (Kernev), and Bro Waroc'h (Broërec) – which eventually were incorporated into the larger Breton state. The outset ii kingdoms derive their names from the homelands of the migrating Britons (Devon and Cornwall). Bro Waroc'h ("land of Waroch") derives from the name of one of the kickoff known Breton rulers, who dominated the region of Vannes (Gwened). The rulers of Domnonia such as Conomor sought to expand their territory (including holdings in British Devon and Cornwall), claiming overlordship over all Bretons, though there was constant tension betwixt local lords.

Resistance to outside rule [edit]

Partition of the Carolingian Empire in 843

During the 9th century the Bretons resisted incorporation into the Frankish Carolingian Empire. The commencement unified Duchy of Brittany was founded by Nominoe. The Bretons made friendly overtures to the Danish Vikings to assistance comprise Frankish expansionist ideas.

When the Carolingian empire was divided in 843, Nominoe took reward of the confusion to consolidate his territory. In alliance with Lambert II of Nantes and the Viking warlord Hastein, Nominoe's son Erispoe defeated the Franks at the Battle of Messac. In 845 the Breton ground forces nether Nominoe defeated the forces of Charles the Baldheaded, Male monarch of Westward Francia (France), at the Battle of Ballon, in the eastern role of Brittany near Redon and the Frankish border. Nominoe gained command over the major towns of Rennes and Nantes, which had previously formed part of the Frankish border zone known as the "Breton March".

Control over Rennes, Nantes and the Pays de Retz was secured when the Frankish regular army was defeated in one case once more in 851 at the Battle of Jengland by the Bretons under Erispoe; consequently Charles the Baldheaded recognised the independence of Brittany and determined the borders that defined the historic duchy and after province. Under Erispoe'southward successor Salomon, Hastein'south Vikings and the Bretons united as one in 865 to defeat a Frankish regular army at the Battle of Brissarthe, near modern-day Le Mans. Two Frankish leaders, Robert the Strong and Ranulf, were killed past the Vikings. The Franks were forced to confirm Brittany's independence from the Frankish kingdoms and expand Salomon's territory. The Vikings tactically helped their Breton allies by making devastating pillaging raids on the Frankish kingdoms. This unfortunately became a double edged sword over the adjacent few decades as the Vikings turned on the Bretons and pillaged Brittany eventually occupying it. This state of affairs was simply overturned with the return of exiled Bretons and an alliance with the Franks. From this point Brittany became a duchy with various levels of fealty to Westward Francia and eventually France.

Loftier Eye Ages [edit]

Bretons took part in the Revolt of 1173–1174, siding with the rebels confronting Henry Two of England. Henry's son Geoffroy Ii, and then heir apparent to the Duchy of Brittany, resisted his father'south attempts to annex Brittany to the possessions of the English Crown. Geoffroy's son Arthur did likewise during his reign (1186–1203) until his death, perhaps past assassination under King John'south orders.

In 1185, Geoffroy II signed "Count Geoffrey's Assise" which forbade the subdivision of fiefs, thereby reinforcing the Breton feudal system.

After the presumed death of Duke Arthur I, with Arthur's full elder sis Eleanor captive nether John of England, the Bretons supported Arthur's half younger sister Alix instead. King Philip August of France married Alix to the Capetian prince Peter Mauclerc of Dreux, establishing Peter every bit regent of Alix.

In 1213, with the aim of strengthening his power in Brittany, Philip Baronial introduced Peter as administrator of the duchy and tutor of his son, duke Jehan of Brittany. It was Peter Mauclerc who introduced the use of ermines in the Breton coat of artillery and came to espouse the crusade of his fief'southward independence with respect to France. While John attempted to regain Brittany in the name of Eleanor, he was defeated in 1214 and finally recognized Alix and Peter. Eleanor ended up in English prison without issue, with her claim never raised ever since.

The 14th and 15th centuries saw the recognition of the distinction between a Gallo-speaking Britannia gallicana (now chosen Upper Brittany) and a Breton-speaking Britannia britonizans (now Lower Brittany).^[17]

The Breton War of Succession was fought in 1341–1364. The parties were the half-brother of the last duke, John of Montfort (supported by the English language), and his niece, Joanna of Penthièvre, who was married to Charles of Blois, nephew of the king of France. This protracted conflict, a component of the Hundred Years' War, has passed into legend (see for example Gainsay of the Thirty and Bertrand de Guesclin). Its outcome was decided at the Battle of Auray in 1364, where the House of Montfort was victorious over the French party. Later the offset Treaty of Guérande, Joanna of Penthièvre abdicated her claims to the dukedom in favour of John the Conquistador. A modified form of Salic law was introduced in Brittany as a consequence.

In the midst of the conflict, in 1352, the États de Bretagne or Estates of Brittany were established. They would develop into the Duchy's parlement.

Deserted by his nobles, Duke John IV left for exile in England in 1373. The higher nobility of that time, like the house of Coetmen-Penthièvre, or the house of Rougé, descendants of the former kings of Brittany, strongly supported the Penthièvre side and was nearly extinguished in the repeated fights betwixt Montfort and Penthièvre's troops. The rex of France, Charles 5, named as lieutenant-general of Brittany his brother, the duke of Anjou (likewise a son-in-police force of Joanna de Penthièvre). In 1378, the king of France sought to annex Brittany, which provoked the Bretons to think John Four from exile. The second Treaty of Guérande (1381) established Brittany's neutrality in the Anglo-French disharmonize, although John continued to swear homage to Charles VI.

In 1420, duke John Five was kidnapped by the count of Penthièvre, son of Joanna of Penthièvre. John's married woman, duchess Joanna de France besieged the rebels and set free her husband, who confiscated the Penthièvre's goods.

In 1464 the Cure-all, a Breton-Latin-French dictionary past Jehan Lagadeuc, was published. This book was the world's offset trilingual lexicon, the commencement Breton dictionary and as well the get-go French lexicon.

The army of the Kingdom of France, with the help of 5,000 mercenaries from Switzerland and Italian republic, defeated the Breton army in 1488, and the last Duke of independent Brittany, Francis Two, was forced to submit to a treaty giving the Male monarch of France the right to determine the marriage of the Duke's daughter, a 12-year-old girl, the heir to the Duchy. The Duchess Anne was the last independent ruler of the duchy as she was ultimately obliged to marry Louis XII of France. The duchy passed on her death to her daughter Claude, merely Claude's married man Francis I of French republic incorporated the duchy into the Kingdom of France in 1532 through the Edict of Union between Brittany and France, which was registered with the Estates of Brittany.

Modern era [edit]

Early modern period [edit]

Subsequently 1532, Brittany retained a certain fiscal and regulatory autonomy, which was defended past the Estates of Brittany despite the rising tide of regal authoritarianism. Brittany remained on the whole strongly Catholic during the period of the Huguenots and the Wars of Religion, although Protestantism fabricated some headway in Nantes and a few other areas. From 1590 to 1598, during the War of the Catholic League, Philippe Emmanuel, Duke of Mercœur (governor of Brittany and married man of the countess of Penthièvre) sought to have himself proclaimed Duke of Brittany and allied with Philip II of Spain. The latter, on the other mitt, considered establishing his daughter Isabella at the head of a reconstituted Brittany. Henry IV, however, brought Mercœur to an honourable give up.

During the era of Colbert, Brittany benefited from France'southward naval expansion. Major ports were built or renovated at Saint-Malo, Brest, and Lorient, and Bretons came to plant a leading component of the French navy. Bretons played an important role in the colonization of New France and the West Indies (see French colonisation of the Americas).

In 1675, insurgents in the diocese of Cornouaille and elsewhere rose upward in the Revolt of the Bonnets Rouges. The rebels, in contact with Holland, were expecting aid that never came. Sébastian Ar Balp, the leader of the rebellion, was assassinated by the Marquis de Montgaillard whom Ar Balp was belongings prisoner. The rebellion was repressed by the duc de Chaulnes, and hundreds of Bretons were hanged or broken on the wheel. Madame de Sévigné claimed that French soldiers garrisoned in Rennes had roasted a Breton infant on a spit. A whole street in Rennes, suspected of seditiousness, was demolished leaving the inhabitants homeless.^[18]

In the conspiracy of Pontcallec of 1720, members of the petty nobility in contact with Spain led a tax revolt confronting the Régence. The marquis de Pontcallec and 3 others were tried and executed in Nantes for the uprising.

During the 18th century, Nantes rose to become one of the well-nigh important commercial centres of France. The courage of Nantes'due south prosperity was the Atlantic slave trade.

On 4 August 1789, the National Constituent Assembly in Paris unanimously proclaimed the abolition of feudal privileges. These included the privileges of the provinces such as Brittany. Brittany thus lost the juridical existence, autonomy, Parlement, and administrative, fiscal and legal peculiarities guaranteed since the Edict of Spousal relationship of 1532. Although the Breton Club (amend known every bit the Jacobins) in Paris had initiated the move to abolish feudal distinctions, the conclusion proved increasingly unpopular in Brittany, where the loss of local autonomy and the increasingly anti-clerical character of the Revolution were resented. Many Bretons took office in the Chouannerie, the royalist insurgency assisted by Great Britain and allied with the revolt in the Vendée. Brittany thus became a hotbed of resistance to the French Revolution.

The territory of Brittany was divided in 1789 into five départements, partially on the basis of before divisions called présidiaux which in turn had issued from medieval bailliages.

Revolutionary catamenia [edit]

Many Bretons, especially members of the merchant class, were sympathetic to the monarchy during the French Revolution. In 1791, Bretons began to program a re-establishment of the Estates General of the province, and a return to the three-tiered system. The Marquis de la Rouërie was a significant effigy in this plot but ultimately ended upwardly in hiding after a secret amanuensis divulged his participation to Georges Danton.^[19]

Despite the obstacle posed by i of the plot's major architects going into hiding, the coup connected on aided by the English language, as they desired access to the ports on Brittany's coast. Brittany was especially vulnerable to the British since the Breton naval fleet was weakened by September 1793 due to previous mutinies and the restructuring of the military machine.^[xx] Brittany, with its weak infrastructure, was poorly continued to the rest of France. The British but wanted to cease the war with the goal of preserving "the old residuum of power on the Continent".^[21] Normally, cities in Brittany were used for their naval importance, only they eventually became industrialized because of the Democracy, which prepared them for war. The Committee of Public Safe was preparing to attack England as the English had meaning influence in the towns of Saint-Malo and Brest, and some revolutionaries feared that these towns would give themselves up to the English equally Toulon had washed.^[nineteen] ^[22]

In light of these mounting foreign threats, the Committee of Public Condom sent Republican forces known as 'Representatives on a Mission' to local regions—such as Brittany—to ensure the preservation of national unity within France.^[23] The office of these Representatives, by order of the National Convention, was to supersede the local government leaders. In doing so, the Representatives were meant to quell anti-revolutionary sentiment.^[23] The guild of the National Convention on 14 August 1793 declared that these Representatives "take every mensurate of interior and outside defense which they may consider necessary" contributed to the nation-wide violence experienced during the Terror.^[24] Jean-Baptiste Carrier, one prominent Representative on a Mission, who had been sent to Brittany, dutifully reported to the Commission of Public Safe that he would "arrest those declared guilty of the counter-revolutionary disorders committed past this visitor".^[25] Pierre Louis Prieur, some other such Representative on a Mission, was involved in extinguishing the uprisings in the coastal towns of Brittany such as Lorient and Vannes.

The peasants in Brittany were royalist and opposed the new authorities. Prieur sought to implement the say-so of the convention by arresting suspected counter-revolutionaries, removing the local authorities of Brittany, and making speeches. In Vannes, at that place was an unfavorable mental attitude towards the Revolution with only 200 of the city'southward population of 12,000 accepting the new constitution. Prieur declared Brittany's countryside overcome by fanaticism in gild to justify terror every bit the new society. Prieur and then infiltrated cities with troops and conducted house searches to locate and silence rebellious aristocrats and peasants.^[26] While arrests were the offset defence force of the newly established government confronting counter-revolutionaries, fear quickly mounted concerning the ability of this group. Speedily, leaders such as Carrier had moved from ordering arrests to ordering executions of anyone plant guilty of treason against the state.^[25]

Postal service-Revolutionary period [edit]

A Breton couple (Léna and Théodore Botrel) wearing traditional Breton costumes at the kickoff of the 20th century

In the 19th-century Brittany acquired a reputation for timeless autarky, as Romantics developed an epitome of the province every bit a breastwork of peasant traditionalism, religious festivals, and wild landscapes. At the same time, Breton life became increasingly integrated with that of the residual of French republic, particularly under the 3rd Republic.

However, the epitome of Brittany as anti-republican led French politicians to dubiousness the reliability of Breton soldiers during the military machine deportment that followed the collapse of the Second French Empire, as resulted from the disastrous French defeat in the Battle of Sedan during the Franco-Prussian War. Fearing Breton separatist sentiments, the soldiers were interned in a camp, Camp Conlie, exterior Le Mans. Because of bad conditions, worsened past mud and rain, several hundreds died from disease. The camp has been described as a "concentration camp" and became a significant atrocity story within Breton nationalism. In 1871 the camp was airtight and the French military decided to incorporate the remaining 19,000 Breton soldiers into the second Ground forces of the Loire. They participated in the Battle of Le Mans, but poorly equipped, they were crushed past the Prussians and also blamed for the defeat by the French commanders.

Brittany has had its own regionalist and separatist movements which have experienced varying success at elections and other political contests. Modern Breton nationalism developed at the end of the 19th and first of the 20th century. The primary body of these movements situated themselves within the Cosmic traditionalist current. After 1944, Breton nationalism was widely discredited thanks to the collaboration of a number of prominent nationalists (such as Roparz Hemon) with the Nazis, who occupied Brittany along with most of the rest of the French state during the Second World War. On the other mitt, other Breton nationalists took part in the Resistance. Brittany played a particularly important role in the Resistance thanks to its proximity to Britain, the relatively rugged landscape, and the presence of important naval installations. All the same, during the 2d Globe War the Allies bombed Brittany along with the residue of Northern France with such ferocity that many towns such as Lorient nearly ceased to exist. The act involved the killing of many thousands of French citizens. In the example of Lorient, the town was not freed until the end of the war and the submarine pens were not destroyed different the civilian areas which had been wiped out.

When French republic was divided into administrative regions by the Vichy government, the official Brittany Region included only four of the five departments traditionally understood to incorporate the Breton territory. This removal of Loire-Atlantique, which contains Nantes (one of the 2 traditional Breton capitals) from the Breton region has been a matter of much controversy.

An experimental nuclear ability station was constructed at Brennilis in the Monts d'Arrée during the 1960s. This was in operation for near 10 years, and since 1988 it has been in the process of existence dismantled. This is the showtime time that a nuclear power station has been dismantled in France.

Since the 1960s in particular Breton nationalism has adult a stiff leftist grapheme, alongside the Cosmic traditionalist strain. Sure groups such as the FLB and the ARB, marginal fifty-fifty within nationalist circles, made headlines through demolition against highly symbolic targets.

In March 1972, workers at the Joint Français, a factory in Saint-Brieuc, went on strike to obtain a wage increase. The strike lasted eight weeks.

Since the 1940s, use of the Breton language has declined precipitously. In most Breton-speaking communities, it has become uncommon for children born since 1945 to acquire much of the language as French becomes universalized. On the other hand, Breton has enjoyed increasing support amidst intellectuals and professionals since the 1970s, and the relatively small, urban-based Diwan motility has sought to stalk the loss of young Breton speakers through bilingual immersion schools. Breton music has too go more widely known through the work of musicians such equally Alan Stivell.

On 16 March 1978, the supertanker Amoco Cadiz ran ashore a few hundred metres from the shores of the small port of Portsall in Ploudalmézeau. The result was the fifth-largest oil spill in world history which severely affected the northward and northwest coasts of Brittany.

In Feb and March 1980, the population of Plogoff, the commune containing the Pointe du Raz, demonstrated to prevent the construction of a nuclear power generator in their commune, despite the paratroopers and helicopters sent by the regime. They received a broad support from the media. The power station project was abandoned after the presidential elections of 1981, which brought François Mitterrand to power.

In 2014, the Bonnets Rouges destroyed hundreds of highway speed cameras, tax portals, and tax bureau offices in their successful direct action campaign to have the "ecotaxe" abolished.

Bibliography [edit]

Surveys and reference books [edit]

Cornette, Joël (2008a). Histoire de la Bretagne et des Bretons : Des âges obscurs au règne de Louis Fourteen (tome 1) (in French). Le Seuil. ISBN978-2757809952.
Cornette, Joël (2008b). Histoire de la Bretagne et des Bretons : Des Lumières au XXIe (tome two) (in French). Le Seuil. ISBN978-2757809969.
Monnier, Jean-Jacques; Cassard, Jean-Christophe (2012). Toute l'Histoire de Bretagne : Des origines à nos jours (in French). Morlaix: Skol Vreizh. ISBN978-ii-915623-79-6.
Croix, Alain (1996). Bretagne, images et histoire (in French). Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes. ISBN2-909275-74-4.
Cassard, Jean-Christophe; Croix, Alain; Le Quéau, Jean-René; Veillard, Jean-Yves (2008). Dictionnaire d'histoire de Bretagne (in French). Skol Vreizh. ISBN978-2915623451.
Delumeau, Jean (2000). Histoire de la Bretagne (in French). Privat. ISBN2708917048.

Prehistory and protohistory [edit]

Fleuriot, Léon (1980). Les origines de la Bretagne. Éd. Payot. ISBN2-228-12710-8.
Tonnerre, Noël-Yves (1994). Naissance de la Bretagne. Presse de 50' Université d' Angers. OCLC 1170517706.
Dillon, Myles; Chadwick, Nora (1967). The Celtic Realms. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.

Center ages [edit]

E.G.Bowen Saints seaways and settlements University of Wales Press, 1977. ISBN 0-900768-thirty-4.
Christian Y.Yard. Kerboul Les royaumes brittoniques au Très Haut Moyen Age Editions du Pontig-Coop Breizh, 1997. ISBN 2-84346-030-1.
Jean Kerhervé, 50'État Breton aux 14e et 15e siècles, two vol., Maloine, 1987. ISBN ii-224-01703-0. ISBN ii-224-01704-9.
Myles Dillon, Nora Chadwick, Christian-J. Guyonvarc'h Les royaumes celtiques Librairie Arthème Fayard, 1974. ISBN 2-213-00077-8.

Brittany as a French province [edit]

Michel de Mauny, 1532-1790 Les dessous de l' Union de la Bretagne à la France, Editions French republic-Empire, Rennes, 1986.
Marcel Planiol, Histoire des Institutions de la Bretagne (Droit Public et Droit Privé), Ouvrage couronné par l' Institut, publié avec le concours du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 3 vol., Editions du cercle de Brocéliande, Rennes 1953–1955.

Revolutionary history [edit]

Carrier, Jean-Baptiste; Carrier, E. H. (1920). Correspondence of Jean-Baptiste Carrier (people'due south Representative to the Convention) during His Mission in Brittany, 1793–1794. London; New York: John Lane.
William Doyle. The Oxford History of the French Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.
Kropotkin, Petr (1927). The Great French Revolution. Translated by Due north.F. Dryhurst. New York: Vanguard Printings.
Palmer, Robert Roswell (1941). Twelve Who Ruled: The Commission of Public Rubber during the Terror. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Academy Press.
Popkin, Jeremy D. (2015). A Short History of the French Revolution (6th ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN9781315508924.

References [edit]

^ Monnier & Cassard 2012, p. 9.
^ ^a ^b Monnier & Cassard 2012, p. 11.
^ Monnier & Cassard 2012, p. 13.
^ Cornette 2008a, p. 34.
^ ^a ^b ^c Monnier & Cassard 2012, p. 12.
^ ^a ^b Cornette 2008a, p. 35.
^ Cornette 2008a, p. 36.
^ ^a ^b Monnier & Cassard 2012, p. xv.
^ Monnier & Cassard 2012, p. 24.
^ Monnier & Cassard 2012, p. 25.
^ Monnier & Cassard 2012, p. 19.
^ Monnier & Cassard 2012, p. 21.
^ Monnier & Cassard 2012, p. 23.
^ Fleuriot 1980, p.^{[ page needed ]}.
^ The Mabinogion. Translated by Lady Charlotte Guest. Project Gutenberg. Archived from the original on 24 May 2009.
^ Source:Leiden Academy, holland.^{[ total citation needed ]}
^ John T. Koch, ed. (2006). Celtic Culture: a historical encyclopedia. Volumes 1-5. p. 244.
^ Arthur de La Borderie (1884). La Révolte du Papier Timbré advenu en Bretagne en 1675. Saint-Brieuc.
^ ^a ^b Kropotkin 1927, p.^{[ page needed ]}.
^ Popkin 2015, p. 78.
^ Palmer 1941, p. 206.
^ Palmer 1941, p. 209.
^ ^a ^b Carrier & Carrier 1920, p. 1.
^ Carrier & Carrier 1920, p. 7.
^ ^a ^b Carrier & Carrier 1920, p. eighteen.
^ Palmer 1941, p. 210.

External links [edit]

Skol uhel ar vro – High Found of Brittany - Ti Istor Breizh – The firm for the History of Brittany
Istor Breizh due east saozneg - History of Brittany in English
Douaroniezh Breizh – Geography of Brittany
Personelezh Breizh due east saozneg - Breton identity in English
Seals of Brittany from Dom Morice's Mémoires pour servir de preuves à l'histoire ecclésiastique et civile de Bretagne (1742-1744)
Breton and European Digital Library